Controlled but pragmatic investigations of interventions for behavioural disturbances in dogs and cats

Veterinarians are often directly involved in clinical studies or requested for information to help interpret their results. Therefore, it is reasonable to examine the reservoir of study methods. This article transfers methodological considerations from clinical research into veterinary medicine. The study question determines the appropriate study method. Recently a ten-step procedure was suggested for selection of appropriate study designs in humans. Based on this approach, a pragmatic study design was adapted to the conditions prevailing in interventional studies in dogs and cats with disturbed behaviour. The different concepts for clinical studies are introduced. Whether or not the design and the evaluation of pragmatic studies in dogs and cats with disturbed behaviour has been maintained and the prerequisites have thereby been fulfilled so that the obtained results are suitable to be applied under everyday conditions can be tested in eight steps. Using the pragmatic design the superiority of complex interventions can be investigated. The results of pragmatic studies help to substantiate a value judgement, i. e., the recommendation or rejection of a specific therapeutic intervention for a defined disease entity in a specific therapeutic setting. The goal of pragmatic studies is to obtain results appropriate for use in everyday situations. In conclusion, the suggested procedure is useful for the selection of the appropriate study designs for specific questions. This procedure is also suitable to test whether the conclusions of published study results coincide with the chosen methods.     

The raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) in Germany--an established Neozoon as host and vector for parasites and other pathogenes

Some invasive wildlife species have the potential to act as additional host and vector species for parasitic and other infectious diseases. We used the raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonides), a carnivore species that has its origin in Asia, as an example to demonstrate biological and ecological prerequisites which enables an invasive species to occupy a new habitat permanently. Studies conducted during the last ten years identified a total of 23 endoparasites, two ectoparasites, six bacterial or protozoan species and five viruses, found in the Nyctereutes procyonoides ussuriensis subspecies in its newly occupied range or in N. procyonoides koreensis in its original range. Results of studies in Finland and Germany furthermore showed that biological characteristics of the raccoon dog make this carnivore an appropriate host or vector for a variety of parasites and infectious diseases. This may result in a growing importance of this invasive carnivore for the epidemiology of transmissible diseases in Germany. Especially with regard to zoonotic disease outbreaks, the raccoon dog should therefore be paid more attention in disease prevention and eradication strategies.     

Animal health in the 21st century-a global challenge

On the occasion of the centenary of the Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, a conference entitled 'Animal Health in the 21st Century' was held in Greifswald, Germany, on 11-13 October 2010 to discuss current and future challenges regarding the global situation regarding infectious animal diseases and zoonoses, animal breeding, animal nutrition and animal welfare. Particular attention was paid to the impact of recent developments and anticipated future trends on livestock production.     

Relation between soil organic matter and yield levels of nonlegume crops in organic and conventional farming systems

The aim of this study was to evaluate the interaction between yield levels of nonleguminous crops and soil organic matter (SOM) under the specific conditions of organic and conventional farming, respectively, and to identify implications for SOM management in arable farming considering the farming system (organic vs. conventional). For that purpose, correlations between yield levels of nonlegume crops and actual SOM level (C_org, N_t, C_hwe, N_hwe) as well as SOM‐level development were examined including primary data from selected treatments of seven long‐term field experiments in Germany and Switzerland. Yield levels of nonlegume crops were positively correlated with SOM levels, but the correlation was significant only under conditions of organic farming, and not with conventional farming treatments. While absolute SOM levels had a positive impact on yield levels of nonlegumes, the yield levels of nonlegumes and SOM‐level development over time correlated negatively. Due to an increased demand of N from SOM mineralization, higher yield levels of nonlegumes obviously indicate an increased demand for OM supply to maintain SOM levels. Since this observation is highly significant for farming without mineral‐N fertilization but not for farming with such fertilization, we conclude that the demand of SOM‐level maintenance or enhancement and thus adequate SOM management is highly relevant for crop production in organic farming both from an agronomical and ecological point of view. Under conventional management, the agronomic relevance of SOM with regard to nutrient supply is much lower than under organic management. However, it has to be considered that we excluded other possible benefits of SOM in our survey that may be highly relevant for conventional farming as well.     

Phytoextraction of Cadmium and Phytostabilisation with Mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris)

Artemisia vulgaris (mugwort) is a tall (1.0?C2.0 m) high biomass perennial herb which accumulates considerable amounts of metals on contaminated sites. An outdoor pot experiment was conducted on a sandy, slightly alkaline soil of moderate fertility to study the uptake of cadmium and the distribution of Cd in plant tissues of A. vulgaris. Cadmium was applied as CdCl₂ (a total of 1 l solution of 0, 10, 50 and 100 mg Cd l^?1) to 12-l pots with a height of 25 cm. HNO₃- and water-extractable concentrations of Cd were correlated with the applied Cd at 2-cm soil depth, but were not correlated at 20-cm soil depth, suggesting that Cd was either not mobile in the soil or completely taken up by mugwort roots. The Cd concentrations in different organs of A. vulgaris and litter increased with increasing soil contamination. Leaf/soil concentration ratios (BCFs) up to 65.93?±?32.26 were observed. Translocation of Cd to the aboveground organs was very high. The leaf/root Cd concentration ratio (translocation factor) ranged from 2.07?±?0.56 to 2.37 ± 1.31; however, there was no correlation of translocation factors to Cd enrichment, indicating similar translocation upon different soil contamination levels. In summary, A. vulgaris is tolerant to the metal concentrations accumulated, has a high metal accumulating biomass and accumulates Cd up to about 70% in the aboveground parts. Both a high phytoextraction potential and a high value for phytostabilisation would recommend mugwort for phytoremediation.     

Black Carbon in Fly-Ash Influenced Soils of the Dübener Heide Region,Central Germany

Due to long-lasting historic fly-ash deposition from lignite-fired power plants, soils of forest ecosystems in Central Germany have been affected by a variety of contaminants. In addition to heavy metals and oxides, another fly-ash compound is Black carbon (BC) which supposedly has been accumulated as well. BC as a generic term describing different forms of pyrogenetic carbon is considered as a very stable fraction of the C cycle. In this study, BC content of organic layers of 38 sites from two adjacent forested areas was determined using a simplified benzenepolycarboxylic acid (BPCA) method. Considerable amounts of BC were detected in both areas. It accounted for up to 11.2 and 15.6% of total organic carbon (TOC) in the Oe and Oa horizons, respectively. On average, slightly higher BC contents were found in the Oe (23.0 g BC kg^?1), whereas BC/TOC ratios were higher in the Oa. The BC/TOC ratio of the Oe horizon tended to decrease with increasing distance from the former main emitters. In contrast to expectations, BC contents of the Oa horizon tended to increase with increasing distance. The deposition gradient, in previous research found for other fly-ash compounds, could not be observed for BC. Higher values in more remote forests might be taken as an indicator for the influence of additional emission sources. Further research is needed to confirm the results and to elucidate the potential impact of (soot-) BC on humus dynamics in the study area.     

Development of soil organic matter stocks under different farm types and tillage systems in the Organic Arable Farming Experiment Gladbacherhof

In 1998, the Organic Arable Farming Experiment Gladbacherhof (OAFEG) was started in order to explore the impact of different organic arable production systems (mixed farming, stockless farming with rotational ley, stockless cash crop farming) and of different tillage intensities (conventional plough as a full inversion tillage, two-layer plough, inversion tillage at reduced depth, non-inversion tillage) on sustainability parameters. In this article, we present results on the development of soil organic matter (SOM) levels. Starting with organic mixed farming with approximately 0.7 livestock units (LU) per ha cattle before set-up of the experiment, only the mixed farming system in the experiment was able to maintain SOM levels. The stockless system with ley maintained soil organic carbon (SOC), but lost soil total nitrogen (STN), and the stockless cash crop system had a significant SOM loss in the magnitude of 7.7 t SOM ha^?1, or roughly 8.4% of the initial SOM mass. Reducing tillage intensity had no impact on SOM masses, but only on organic matter stratification in soils. We conclude that specialization of organic farms towards stockless arable crop production requires special attention on SOM reproduction to avoid detrimental effects. Further, reduced tillage intensity does not necessarily have a positive effect on SOM.     

Herbivory of an invasive slug in a model grassland community can be affected by earthworms and mycorrhizal fungi

Invasion of non-native species is among the top threats for the biodiversity and functioning of native and agricultural ecosystems worldwide. We investigated whether the herbivory of the slug Arion vulgaris (formerly Arion lusitanicus; Gastropoda), that is listed among the 100 worst alien species in Europe, is affected by soil organisms commonly present in terrestrial ecosystems (i.e. earthworms—Annelida: Lumbricidae and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi—AMF, Glomerales). We hypothesized that slug herbivory would be affected by soil organisms via altered plant nutrient availability and plant quality. In a greenhouse experiment, we created a simple plant community consisting of a grass, a forb, and a legume species and inoculated these systems with either two earthworm species and/or four AMF taxa. Slugs were introduced after plants were established. Earthworms significantly reduced total slug herbivory in AMF-inoculated plant communities (P?=?0.013). Across plant species, earthworms increased leaf total N and secondary metabolites, AMF decreased leaf thickness. Mycorrhizae induced a shift in slug feeding preference from non-legumes to legumes; the grass was generally avoided by slugs. AMF effects on legume herbivory can partly be explained by the AMF-induced increase in total N and decrease in C/N ratio; earthworm effects are less clear as no worm-induced alterations of legume plant chemistry were observed. The presence of earthworms increased average AMF colonization of plant roots by 140 % (P?<?0.001). Total shoot mass was significantly increased by AMF (P?<?0.001). These data suggest that the feeding behavior of this invasive slug is altered by a belowground control of plant chemical quality and community structure.     

Soil heterogeneity at the field scale: a challenge for precision crop protection

Crop protection seldom takes into account soil heterogeneity at the field scale. Yet, variable site characteristics affect the incidence of pests as well as the efficacy and fate of pesticides in soil. This article reviews crucial starting points for incorporating soil information into precision crop protection (PCP). At present, the lack of adequate field maps is a major drawback. Conventional soil analyses are too expensive to capture soil heterogeneity at the field scale with the required spatial resolution. Therefore, we discuss alternative procedures exemplified by our own results concerning (i) minimally and non-invasive sensor techniques for the estimation of soil properties, (ii) the evidence of soil heterogeneity with respect to PCP, and (iii) current possibilities for incorporation of high resolution soil information into crop protection decisions. Soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil texture are extremely interesting for PCP. Their determination with minimally invasive techniques requires the sampling of soils, because the sensors must be used in the laboratory. However, this technique delivers precise information at low cost. We accurately determined SOC in the near-infrared. In the mid-infrared, texture and lime content were also exactly quantified. Non-invasive sensors require less effort. The airborne HyMap sensor was suitable for the detection of variability in SOC at high resolution, thus promising further progress regarding SOC data acquisition from bare soil. The apparent electrical conductivity as measured by an EM38 sensor was shown to be a suitable proxy for soil texture and layering. A survey of arable fields near Bonn (Germany) revealed widespread within-field heterogeneity of texture-related ECa, SOC and other characteristics. Maps of herbicide sorption and application rate were derived from sensor data, showing that optimal herbicide dosage is strongly governed by soil variability. A phytoassay with isoproturon confirmed the reliability of spatially varied herbicide application rates. Mapping areas with an enhanced leaching risk within fields allows them to be kept free of pesticides with related regulatory restrictions. We conclude that the use of information on soil heterogeneity within the concept of PCP is beneficial, both economically and ecologically.